These, and others, may also be available through the Africa Groundwater Literature Archive, Ako Ako A, Eyong GET and Nkeng GE. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Sightings of lion in the hluhluwe umfolozi vary according to various factors. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). Overall, Jacobss indices showed avoidance of small antelopes and megaherbivores (elephant and giraffe) except for female lions which showed a slight preference for elephants in the wet season and consumed giraffe in proportion to their availability in the early and dry seasons (Fig. Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. For more information see the climate resource page. Your email address will not be published. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. The majority of the population is employed in agriculture, much of it at subsistence scale with surplus produce sold in local markets. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. 2011. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 1998). Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. British Geological Survey. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. Analyzed the data: ZD MV. Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. In contrast, analysis of faeces tends to be biased against species with less hair, such as elephants, and very large bodied prey for which the body surface/volume ratio is smaller than for smaller species [37], and hence the likelihood of predators eating hairs is smaller. The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. cameroon water resources for lions. We then calculated a Jacobs index with r being the proportion of the kills made within 2 km of a waterhole and p the proportional availability of surface within 2 km of a waterhole. Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. Four different kinds of cryptocurrencies you should know. 2013. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Boreholes are typically between 40 and 200 m deep. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. Cameroon has two major rivers, the Sanaga, the longest at about 525 km (325 miles) long and the Wouri, the largest. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. For each hair the cross-section and a scale pattern was photographed and identified to species level using photographic reference libraries [30][33] as well as unpublished photographic reference libraries compiled from carcass, capture and museum specimen animals in situ in Zimbabwe. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. 3B and C). The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Jacobss index of seasonal prey preference estimated from confirmed lion kills and faecal samples. Water sources are also considered crucial in lion habitat selection in the Serengeti [47] and thought to act as passive traps for ungulates in the Kruger ecosystem [5], [48]. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Your email address will not be published. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Because several non-independent samples were collected at one site, we used one faecal sample only per kill site to avoid any pseuso-replication [27]. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. Boxes show medians, 25% and 75% quartiles. Livestock agriculture and fishing are also important, and the commercial bushmeat trade is large enough to threaten wildlife. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: Seasonal Water Sources; Seasonal Water Sources. Etosha Where does the Cameroon River get its water? The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon. We're sorry. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.004, Return to the index pages: The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabweabout school : Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021. Zeke Davidson, An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! Jacobs index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Where is Cameroon in the World? Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. Surface water. Values>0 indicate preference, values<0 suggest use but avoidance. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. 2009). Chari provides an outstanding home for some fish species including nile and perch, making it an important fishing ground for many local communities. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. and common mice (Mus spp.). 2018. There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. Sossusvlei Sahara Desert The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). 2017. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. Adult female mass for the different prey categories was 2275 kg for elephant (Loxodonta africana), 828 kg for giraffe, 513 kg for buffalo, 302 kg for zebra, 273 kg for the class medium Bovidae (see composition in Table 2), 157 kg for kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 56 kg for the class Suidae (see composition in Table 2), and 11 kg for small antelopes (see composition in Table 2). In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. 1). Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! What are the major rivers in Cameroon? Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. Timber logging provides significant government income, but is relatively poorly regulated. Cameroon is rich in national parks and wildlife reserves, including the Waza National Park in the north (which contains both forest and savanna animals), the Dja Faunal Reserve (a UNESCO World Heritage site), and the Campo Ma'an National Park in the southwest (which has elephants, hippos, leopards, and plenty of primates). Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. Overall, juveniles represented one third of the zebra carcasses found. Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. Emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) bursting gullies. Aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones were recorded during! 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